ہڑپہ کی قدیم تہذیب: تاریخی، ثقافتی اور تمدنی خدوخال کا جائزہ

The Ancient Civilization of Harappa: A Review of Historical, Cultural, and Civilizational Features

Abstract

The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, stands as one of the world's oldest urban societies, flourishing along the banks of the Indus River and its tributaries from approximately 3500 BCE to 1500 BCE. Discovered in the early 19th century by explorers like Charles Masson and later excavated by archaeologists such as Alexander Cunningham, John Marshall, and Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni, Harappa (located 25 km west of Sahiwal, Pakistan) reveals a highly advanced society with planned cities, sophisticated drainage systems, standardized brickwork, and extensive trade networks extending to Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Central Asia. Spanning over 650,000 square kilometers across modern-day Pakistan and parts of India, it was contemporaneous with Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations but surpassed them in urban planning and peaceful coexistence, as evidenced by the absence of palaces, large weapons, or temples. The society was agrarian, with crops like wheat, barley, and cotton; artisanal crafts including pottery, bead-making, and metallurgy; and a script that remains undeciphered. Invasions by Aryan tribes around 1750-1500 BCE, climatic changes, river shifts, and possible epidemics contributed to its decline. Modern excavations by figures like Dr. Muhammad Rafique Mughal and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer have established its indigenous origins in Pakistan, challenging earlier notions of external influences. Harappa's legacy persists in contemporary South Asian culture through shared linguistic roots, rituals, and artifacts. This paper explores its historical background, nomenclature, geography, culture, economy, religion, and excavations, emphasizing the need for preservation and further research to unlock its mysteries.